The cryo-EM structure of ASK1 reveals an asymmetric architecture allosterically modulated by TRX1.

Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is a crucial stress sensor, directing cells toward apoptosis, differentiation, and senescence via the p38 and JNK signaling pathways. ASK1 dysregulation has been associated with cancer and inflammatory, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases, among others. However, our limited knowledge of the underlying structural mechanism of ASK1 regulation hampers our ability to target this member of the MAP3K protein family towards developing therapeutic interventions for these disorders. Nevertheless, as a multidomain Ser/Thr protein kinase, ASK1 is regulated by a complex mechanism involving dimerization and interactions with several other proteins, including thioredoxin 1 (TRX1). Thus, the present study aims at structurally characterizing ASK1 and its complex with TRX1 using several biophysical techniques. As shown by cryo-EM analysis, in a state close to its active form, ASK1 is a compact and asymmetric dimer, which enables extensive interdomain and interchain interactions. These interactions stabilize the active conformation of the ASK1 kinase domain. In turn, TRX1 functions as a negative allosteric effector of ASK1, modifying the structure of the TRX1-binding domain and changing its interaction with the tetratricopeptide repeats domain. Consequently, TRX1 reduces access to the activation segment of the kinase domain. Overall, our findings not only clarify the role of ASK1 dimerization and inter-domain contacts but also provide key mechanistic insights into its regulation, thereby highlighting the potential of ASK1 protein-protein interactions as targets for anti-inflammatory therapy.

The yeast 14-3-3 proteins Bmh1 and Bmh2 regulate key signaling pathways.

Cell signaling regulates several physiological processes by receiving, processing, and transmitting signals between the extracellular and intracellular environments. In signal transduction, phosphorylation is a crucial effector as the most common posttranslational modification. Selectively recognizing specific phosphorylated motifs of target proteins and modulating their functions through binding interactions, the yeast 14-3-3 proteins Bmh1 and Bmh2 are involved in catabolite repression, carbon metabolism, endocytosis, and mitochondrial retrograde signaling, among other key cellular processes. These conserved scaffolding molecules also mediate crosstalk between ubiquitination and phosphorylation, the spatiotemporal control of meiosis, and the activity of ion transporters Trk1 and Nha1. In humans, deregulation of analogous processes triggers the development of serious diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, viral infections, microbial conditions and neuronal and age-related diseases. Accordingly, the aim of this review article is to provide a brief overview of the latest findings on the functions of yeast 14-3-3 proteins, focusing on their role in modulating the aforementioned processes.

14-3-3 protein inhibits CaMKK1 by blocking the kinase active site with its last two C-terminal helices.

Ca2+ /CaM-dependent protein kinase kinases 1 and 2 (CaMKK1 and CaMKK2) phosphorylate and enhance the catalytic activity of downstream kinases CaMKI, CaMKIV, and protein kinase B. Accordingly, CaMKK1 and CaMKK2 regulate key physiological and pathological processes, such as tumorigenesis, neuronal morphogenesis, synaptic plasticity, transcription factor activation, and cellular energy homeostasis, and promote cell survival. Both CaMKKs are partly inhibited by phosphorylation, which in turn triggers adaptor and scaffolding protein 14-3-3 binding. However, 14-3-3 binding only significantly affects CaMKK1 function. CaMKK2 activity remains almost unchanged after complex formation for reasons still unclear. Here, we aim at structurally characterizing CaMKK1:14-3-3 and CaMKK2:14-3-3 complexes by SAXS, H/D exchange coupled to MS, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The results revealed that complex formation suppresses the interaction of both phosphorylated CaMKKs with Ca2+ /CaM and affects the structure of their kinase domains and autoinhibitory segments. But these effects are much stronger on CaMKK1 than on CaMKK2 because the CaMKK1:14-3-3γ complex has a more compact and rigid structure in which the active site of the kinase domain directly interacts with the last two C-terminal helices of the 14-3-3γ protein, thereby inhibiting CaMKK1. In contrast, the CaMKK2:14-3-3 complex has a looser and more flexible structure, so 14-3-3 binding only negligibly affects the catalytic activity of CaMKK2. Therefore, Ca2+ /CaM binding suppression and the interaction of the kinase active site of CaMKK1 with the last two C-terminal helices of 14-3-3γ protein provide the structural basis for 14-3-3-mediated CaMKK1 inhibition.

The second intracellular loop of the yeast Trk1 potassium transporter is involved in regulation of activity, and interaction with 14-3-3 proteins.

Potassium is an essential intracellular ion, and a sufficient intracellular concentration of it is crucial for many processes; therefore it is fundamental for cells to precisely regulate K+ uptake and efflux through the plasma membrane. The uniporter Trk1 is a key player in K+ acquisition in yeasts. The TRK1 gene is expressed at a low and stable level; thus the activity of the transporter needs to be regulated at a posttranslational level. S. cerevisiae Trk1 changes its activity and affinity for potassium ion quickly and according to both internal and external concentrations of K+, as well as the membrane potential. The molecular basis of these changes has not been elucidated, though phosphorylation is thought to play an important role. In this study, we examined the role of the second, short, and highly conserved intracellular hydrophilic loop of Trk1 (IL2), and identified two phosphorylable residues (Ser882 and Thr900) as very important for 1) the structure of the loop and consequently for the targeting of Trk1 to the plasma membrane, and 2) the upregulation of the transporter's activity reaching maximal affinity under low external K+ conditions. Moreover, we identified three residues (Thr155, Ser414, and Thr900) within the Trk1 protein as strong candidates for interaction with 14-3-3 regulatory proteins, and showed, in an in vitro experiment, that phosphorylated Thr900 of the IL2 indeed binds to both isoforms of yeast 14-3-3 proteins, Bmh1 and Bmh2.

Lengthening the Guanidine-Aryl Linker of Phenylpyrimidinylguanidines Increases Their Potency as Inhibitors of FOXO3-Induced Gene Transcription.

Increased FOXO3 nuclear localization is involved in neuroblastoma chemoresistance and tumor angiogenesis. Accordingly, FOXO3 inhibition is a promising strategy for boosting antitumor immune responses and suppressing FOXO3-mediated therapy resistance in cancer cells. However, no FOXO3 inhibitors are currently available for clinical use. Nevertheless, we have recently identified (4-propoxy)phenylpyrimidinylguanidine as a FOXO3 inhibitor in cancer cells in the low micromolar range. Here, we report the synthesis and structure-activity relationship study of a small library of its derivatives, some of which inhibit FOXO3-induced gene transcription in cancer cells in a submicromolar range and are thus 1 order of magnitude more potent than their parent compound. By NMR and molecular docking, we showed that these compounds differ in their interactions with the DNA-binding domain of FOXO3. These results may provide a foundation for further optimizing (4-propoxy)phenylpyrimidinylguanidine and developing therapeutics for inhibiting the activity of forkhead box (FOX) transcription factors and their interactions with other binding partners.

Structural insights into the functional roles of 14-3-3 proteins.

Signal transduction cascades efficiently transmit chemical and/or physical signals from the extracellular environment to intracellular compartments, thereby eliciting an appropriate cellular response. Most often, these signaling processes are mediated by specific protein-protein interactions involving hundreds of different receptors, enzymes, transcription factors, and signaling, adaptor and scaffolding proteins. Among them, 14-3-3 proteins are a family of highly conserved scaffolding molecules expressed in all eukaryotes, where they modulate the function of other proteins, primarily in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. Through these binding interactions, 14-3-3 proteins participate in key cellular processes, such as cell-cycle control, apoptosis, signal transduction, energy metabolism, and protein trafficking. To date, several hundreds of 14-3-3 binding partners have been identified, including protein kinases, phosphatases, receptors and transcription factors, which have been implicated in the onset of various diseases. As such, 14-3-3 proteins are promising targets for pharmaceutical interventions. However, despite intensive research into their protein-protein interactions, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms whereby 14-3-3 proteins regulate the functions of their binding partners remains insufficient. This review article provides an overview of the current state of the art of the molecular mechanisms whereby 14-3-3 proteins regulate their binding partners, focusing on recent structural studies of 14-3-3 protein complexes.

FOXO4 interacts with p53 TAD and CRD and inhibits its binding to DNA.

Transcription factor p53 protects cells against tumorigenesis when subjected to various cellular stresses. Under these conditions, p53 interacts with transcription factor Forkhead box O (FOXO) 4, thereby inducing cellular senescence by upregulating the transcription of senescence-associated protein p21. However, the structural details of this interaction remain unclear. Here, we characterize the interaction between p53 and FOXO4 by NMR, chemical cross-linking, and analytical ultracentrifugation. Our results reveal that the interaction between p53 TAD and the FOXO4 Forkhead domain is essential for the overall stability of the p53:FOXO4 complex. Furthermore, contacts involving the N-terminal segment of FOXO4, the C-terminal negative regulatory domain of p53 and the DNA-binding domains of both proteins stabilize the complex, whose formation blocks p53 binding to DNA but without affecting the DNA-binding properties of FOXO4. Therefore, our structural findings may help to understand the intertwined functions of p53 and FOXO4 in cellular homeostasis, longevity, and stress response.

Nedd4-2 binding to 14-3-3 modulates the accessibility of its catalytic site and WW domains.

Neural precursor cells expressed developmentally downregulated protein 4-2 (Nedd4-2), a homologous to the E6-AP carboxyl terminus (HECT) ubiquitin ligase, triggers the endocytosis and degradation of its downstream target molecules by regulating signal transduction through interactions with other targets, including 14-3-3 proteins. In our previous study, we found that 14-3-3 binding induces a structural rearrangement of Nedd4-2 by inhibiting interactions between its structured domains. Here, we used time-resolved fluorescence intensity and anisotropy decay measurements, together with fluorescence quenching and mass spectrometry, to further characterize interactions between Nedd4-2 and 14-3-3 proteins. The results showed that 14-3-3 binding affects the emission properties of AEDANS-labeled WW3, WW4, and, to a lesser extent, WW2 domains, and reduces their mobility, but not those of the WW1 domain, which remains mobile. In contrast, 14-3-3 binding has the opposite effect on the active site of the HECT domain, which is more solvent exposed and mobile in the complexed form than in the apo form of Nedd4-2. Overall, our results suggest that steric hindrance of the WW3 and WW4 domains combined with conformational changes in the catalytic domain may account for the 14-3-3 binding-mediated regulation of Nedd4-2.

Structural Insights Support Targeting ASK1 Kinase for Therapeutic Interventions.

Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase (ASK) 1, a member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MAP3K) family, modulates diverse responses to oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and calcium influx. As a crucial cellular stress sensor, ASK1 activates c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and p38 MAPKs. Their excessive and sustained activation leads to cell death, inflammation and fibrosis in various tissues and is implicated in the development of many neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, in addition to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and cancer. However, currently available inhibitors of JNK and p38 kinases either lack efficacy or have undesirable side effects. Therefore, targeted inhibition of their upstream activator, ASK1, stands out as a promising therapeutic strategy for treating such severe pathological conditions. This review summarizes recent structural findings on ASK1 regulation and its role in various diseases, highlighting prospects for ASK1 inhibition in the treatment of these pathologies.

14-3-3 proteins inactivate DAPK2 by promoting its dimerization and protecting key regulatory phosphosites.

Death-associated protein kinase 2 (DAPK2) is a CaM-regulated Ser/Thr protein kinase, involved in apoptosis, autophagy, granulocyte differentiation and motility regulation, whose activity is controlled by autoinhibition, autophosphorylation, dimerization and interaction with scaffolding proteins 14-3-3. However, the structural basis of 14-3-3-mediated DAPK2 regulation remains unclear. Here, we structurally and biochemically characterize the full-length human DAPK2:14-3-3 complex by combining several biophysical techniques. The results from our X-ray crystallographic analysis revealed that Thr369 phosphorylation at the DAPK2 C terminus creates a high-affinity canonical mode III 14-3-3-binding motif, further enhanced by the diterpene glycoside Fusicoccin A. Moreover, concentration-dependent DAPK2 dimerization is disrupted by Ca2+/CaM binding and stabilized by 14-3-3 binding in solution, thereby protecting the DAPK2 inhibitory autophosphorylation site Ser318 against dephosphorylation and preventing Ca2+/CaM binding. Overall, our findings provide mechanistic insights into 14-3-3-mediated DAPK2 inhibition and highlight the potential of the DAPK2:14-3-3 complex as a target for anti-inflammatory therapies.

14-3-3-protein regulates Nedd4-2 by modulating interactions between HECT and WW domains.

Neural precursor cell expressed developmentally down-regulated 4 ligase (Nedd4-2) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets proteins for ubiquitination and endocytosis, thereby regulating numerous ion channels, membrane receptors and tumor suppressors. Nedd4-2 activity is regulated by autoinhibition, calcium binding, oxidative stress, substrate binding, phosphorylation and 14-3-3 protein binding. However, the structural basis of 14-3-3-mediated Nedd4-2 regulation remains poorly understood. Here, we combined several techniques of integrative structural biology to characterize Nedd4-2 and its complex with 14-3-3. We demonstrate that phosphorylated Ser342 and Ser448 are the key residues that facilitate 14-3-3 protein binding to Nedd4-2 and that 14-3-3 protein binding induces a structural rearrangement of Nedd4-2 by inhibiting interactions between its structured domains. Overall, our findings provide the structural glimpse into the 14-3-3-mediated Nedd4-2 regulation and highlight the potential of the Nedd4-2:14-3-3 complex as a pharmacological target for Nedd4-2-associated diseases such as hypertension, epilepsy, kidney disease and cancer.

The 14-3-3 Proteins as Important Allosteric Regulators of Protein Kinases.

Phosphorylation by kinases governs many key cellular and extracellular processes, such as transcription, cell cycle progression, differentiation, secretion and apoptosis. Unsurprisingly, tight and precise kinase regulation is a prerequisite for normal cell functioning, whereas kinase dysregulation often leads to disease. Moreover, the functions of many kinases are regulated through protein-protein interactions, which in turn are mediated by phosphorylated motifs and often involve associations with the scaffolding and chaperon protein 14-3-3. Therefore, the aim of this review article is to provide an overview of the state of the art on 14-3-3-mediated kinase regulation, focusing on the most recent mechanistic insights into these important protein-protein interactions and discussing in detail both their structural aspects and functional consequences.

Stabilization of Protein-Protein Interactions between CaMKK2 and 14-3-3 by Fusicoccins.

Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) regulates several key physiological and pathophysiological processes, and its dysregulation has been implicated in obesity, diabetes, and cancer. CaMKK2 is inhibited through phosphorylation in a process involving binding to the scaffolding 14-3-3 protein, which maintains CaMKK2 in the phosphorylation-mediated inhibited state. The previously reported structure of the N-terminal CaMKK2 14-3-3-binding motif bound to 14-3-3 suggested that the interaction between 14-3-3 and CaMKK2 could be stabilized by small-molecule compounds. Thus, we investigated the stabilization of interactions between CaMKK2 and 14-3-3γ by Fusicoccin A and other fusicoccanes-diterpene glycosides that bind at the interface between the 14-3-3 ligand binding groove and the 14-3-3 binding motif of the client protein. Our data reveal that two of five tested fusicoccanes considerably increase the binding of phosphopeptide representing the 14-3-3 binding motif of CaMKK2 to 14-3-3γ. Crystal structures of two ternary complexes suggest that the steric contacts between the C-terminal part of the CaMKK2 14-3-3 binding motif and the adjacent fusicoccane molecule are responsible for differences in stabilization potency between the study compounds. Moreover, our data also show that fusicoccanes enhance the binding affinity of phosphorylated full-length CaMKK2 to 14-3-3γ, which in turn slows down CaMKK2 dephosphorylation, thus keeping this protein in its phosphorylation-mediated inhibited state. Therefore, targeting the fusicoccin binding cavity of 14-3-3 by small-molecule compounds may offer an alternative strategy to suppress CaMKK2 activity by stabilizing its phosphorylation-mediated inhibited state.

A new role for 14-3-3 protein in steroidogenesis.

Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STARD1) is regulated by phosphorylation and 14-3-3 protein binding. STARD1 is a key player in cholesterol transport in mitochondria, and its regulation is not fully understood. Tugaeva et al. provide novel insights on the site-specific phosphorylation and subsequent 14-3-3-dependent regulation of STARD1 function. These results may help us understand the mechanism behind the regulation of steroidogenesis. Comment on: https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.15474.

14-3-3 protein binding blocks the dimerization interface of caspase-2.

Among all species, caspase-2 (C2) is the most evolutionarily conserved caspase required for effective initiation of apoptosis following death stimuli. C2 is activated through dimerization and autoproteolytic cleavage and inhibited through phosphorylation at Ser139 and Ser164 , within the linker between the caspase recruitment and p19 domains of the zymogen, followed by association with the adaptor protein 14-3-3, which maintains C2 in its immature form procaspase (proC2). However, the mechanism of 14-3-3-dependent inhibition of C2 activation remains unclear. Here, we report the structural characterization of the complex between proC2 and 14-3-3 by hydrogen/deuterium mass spectrometry and protein crystallography to determine the molecular basis for 14-3-3-mediated inhibition of C2 activation. Our data reveal that the 14-3-3 dimer interacts with proC2 not only through ligand-binding grooves but also through other regions outside the central channel, thus explaining the isoform-dependent specificity of 14-3-3 protein binding to proC2 and the substantially higher binding affinity of 14-3-3 protein to proC2 than to the doubly phosphorylated peptide. The formation of the complex between 14-3-3 protein and proC2 does not induce any large conformational change in proC2. Furthermore, 14-3-3 protein interacts with and masks both the nuclear localization sequence and the C-terminal region of the p12 domain of proC2 through transient interactions in which both the p19 and p12 domains of proC2 are not firmly docked onto the surface of 14-3-3. This masked region of p12 domain is involved in C2 dimerization. Therefore, 14-3-3 protein likely inhibits proC2 activation by blocking its dimerization surface. DATABASES: Structural data are available in the Protein Data Bank under the accession numbers 6SAD and 6S9K.

The redox-active site of thioredoxin is directly involved in apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 binding that is modulated by oxidative stress.

Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is a ubiquitously expressed mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 5, which mediates various stress signals including oxidative stress. The catalytic activity of ASK1 is tightly controlled by oligomerization and binding of several cofactors. Among these cofactors, thioredoxin stands out as the most important ASK1 inhibitor, but only the reduced form of thioredoxin inhibits ASK1 by direct binding to its N-terminal domain. In addition, oxidation-driven thioredoxin dissociation is the key event in oxidative stress-mediated ASK1 activation. However, the structural mechanism of ASK1 regulation by thioredoxin remains unknown. Here, we report the characterization of the ASK1 domain responsible for thioredoxin binding and its complex using NMR spectroscopy and chemical cross-linking, thus providing the molecular basis for ASK1: thioredoxin complex dissociation under oxidative stress conditions. Our data reveal that the N-terminal domain of ASK1 adopts a fold resembling the thioredoxin structure while retaining substantial conformational plasticity at the thioredoxin-binding interface. Although oxidative stress induces relatively moderate structural changes in thioredoxin, the formation of intramolecular disulfide bridges leads to a considerable conformational rearrangement of the thioredoxin-binding interface on ASK1. Moreover, the cysteine residue at position 250 of ASK1 is the key element of this molecular switch. Finally, our results show that the redox-active site of thioredoxin is directly involved in ASK1 binding that is modulated by oxidative stress, thereby identifying a key target for the structure-based drug design.

Modulating FOXO3 transcriptional activity by small, DBD-binding molecules.

FOXO transcription factors are critical regulators of cell homeostasis and steer cell death, differentiation and longevity in mammalian cells. By combined pharmacophore-modeling-based in silico and fluorescence polarization-based screening we identified small molecules that physically interact with the DNA-binding domain (DBD) of FOXO3 and modulate the FOXO3 transcriptional program in human cells. The mode of interaction between compounds and the FOXO3-DBD was assessed via NMR spectroscopy and docking studies. We demonstrate that compounds S9 and its oxalate salt S9OX interfere with FOXO3 target promoter binding, gene transcription and modulate the physiologic program activated by FOXO3 in cancer cells. These small molecules prove the druggability of the FOXO-DBD and provide a structural basis for modulating these important homeostasis regulators in normal and malignant cells.

Forkhead Domains of FOXO Transcription Factors Differ in both Overall Conformation and Dynamics.

FOXO transcription factors regulate cellular homeostasis, longevity and response to stress. FOXO1 (also known as FKHR) is a key regulator of hepatic glucose production and lipid metabolism, and its specific inhibition may have beneficial effects on diabetic hyperglycemia by reducing hepatic glucose production. Moreover, all FOXO proteins are considered potential drug targets for drug resistance prevention in cancer therapy. However, the development of specific FOXO inhibitors requires a detailed understanding of structural differences between individual FOXO DNA-binding domains. The high-resolution structure of the DNA-binding domain of FOXO1 reported in this study and its comparison with structures of other FOXO proteins revealed differences in both their conformation and flexibility. These differences are encoded by variations in protein sequences and account for the distinct functions of FOXO proteins. In particular, the positions of the helices H1, H2 and H3, whose interface form the hydrophobic core of the Forkhead domain, and the interactions between hydrophobic residues located on the interface between the N-terminal segment, the H2-H3 loop, and the recognition helix H3 differ among apo FOXO1, FOXO3 and FOXO4 proteins. Therefore, the availability of apo structures of DNA-binding domains of all three major FOXO proteins will support the development of FOXO-type-specific inhibitors.

The activity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Na+, K+/H+ antiporter Nha1 is negatively regulated by 14-3-3 protein binding at serine 481.

Na+/H+ antiporters are involved in ensuring optimal intracellular concentrations of alkali-metal cations and protons in most organisms. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the plasma-membrane Na+, K+/H+ antiporter Nha1 mediates Na+ and K+ efflux, which is important for cell growth in the presence of salts. Nha1 belongs among housekeeping proteins and, due to its ability to export K+, it has many physiological functions. The Nha1 transport activity is regulated through its long, hydrophilic and unstructured C-terminus (554 of 985 aa). Although Nha1 has been previously shown to interact with the yeast 14-3-3 isoform (Bmh2), the binding site remains unknown. In this work, we identified the residues through which Nha1 interacts with the 14-3-3 protein. Biophysical characterization of the interaction between the C-terminal polypeptide of Nha1 and Bmh proteins in vitro revealed that the 14-3-3 protein binds to phosphorylated Ser481 of Nha1, and the crystal structure of the phosphopeptide containing Ser481 bound to Bmh1 provided the structural basis of this interaction. Our data indicate that 14-3-3 binding induces a disorder-to-order transition of the C-terminus of Nha1, and in vivo experiments showed that the mutation of Ser481 to Ala significantly increases cation efflux activity via Nha1, which renders cells sensitive to low K+ concentrations. Hence, 14-3-3 binding is apparently essential for the negative regulation of Nha1 activity, which should be low under standard growth conditions, when low amounts of toxic salts are present and yeast cells need to accumulate high amounts of K+.

14-3-3 protein masks the nuclear localization sequence of caspase-2.

Caspase-2 is an apical protease responsible for the proteolysis of cellular substrates directly involved in mediating apoptotic signaling cascades. Caspase-2 activation is inhibited by phosphorylation followed by binding to the scaffolding protein 14-3-3, which recognizes two phosphoserines located in the linker between the caspase recruitment domain and the p19 domains of the caspase-2 zymogen. However, the structural details of this interaction and the exact role of 14-3-3 in the regulation of caspase-2 activation remain unclear. Moreover, the caspase-2 region with both 14-3-3-binding motifs also contains the nuclear localization sequence (NLS), thus suggesting that 14-3-3 binding may regulate the subcellular localization of caspase-2. Here, we report a structural analysis of the 14-3-3ζ:caspase-2 complex using a combined approach based on small angle X-ray scattering, NMR, chemical cross-linking, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The structural model proposed in this study suggests that phosphorylated caspase-2 and 14-3-3ζ form a compact and rigid complex in which the p19 and the p12 domains of caspase-2 are positioned within the central channel of the 14-3-3 dimer and stabilized through interactions with the C-terminal helices of both 14-3-3ζ protomers. In this conformation, the surface of the p12 domain, which is involved in caspase-2 activation by dimerization, is sterically occluded by the 14-3-3 dimer, thereby likely preventing caspase-2 activation. In addition, 14-3-3 protein binding to caspase-2 masks its NLS. Therefore, our results suggest that 14-3-3 protein binding to caspase-2 may play a key role in regulating caspase-2 activation. DATABASE: The atomic coordinates and structure factors have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank, www.ww pdb.org (PDB ID codes 6GKF and 6GKG).